Disinformation
Research and reports into the effectiveness of donor and foundation-supported media development and journalism support programmes that address disinformation & information disorder.
Konrad Adenauer Stiftung
The publication analyzes the emerging trends of foreign authoritarian-state disinformation in the context of the war in Ukraine in a comparative manner focusing on 7 states of Southeast Europe (Bulgaria, Croatia, Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, North Macedonia, Montenegro and Albania).
It examines the continuities and evolution in Russia’s strategies, channels and narratives for disseminating disinformation since the Kremlin’s invasion of Ukraine and the extent to which other foreign authoritarian states -Turkey, the Gulf states, Iran, have amplified Russian propaganda. The research further traces the personal and institutional pathways through which China has been able to establish its media foothold in Southeast European countries. The report offers policy recommendations for safeguarding democracy and media freedom in the Balkans against the ever-increasing pressures from authoritarianism.
Propublica
Google is funneling revenue to some of the web’s most prolific purveyors of false information in Europe, Latin America and Africa, a ProPublica investigation has found.
The company has publicly committed to fighting disinformation around the world, but a ProPublica analysis, the first ever conducted at this scale, documented how Google’s sprawling automated digital ad operation placed ads from major brands on global websites that spread false claims on such topics as vaccines, COVID-19, climate change and elections.
United Nations
A report by UN Special Rapporteur Irene Khan, Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression:
Emphasizing the vital importance of the right to information as a “survival right” on which people’s lives, health and safety depend, the Special Rapporteur recommends that human rights standards be reinforced alongside international humanitarian law during armed conflicts. She urges States to reaffirm their commitment to upholding freedom of opinion and expression and ensuring that action to counter disinformation, propaganda and incitement is well grounded in human rights.
She recommends that social media companies align their policies and practices with human rights standards and apply them consistently across the world. She concludes by reiterating the need to build social resilience against disinformation and promote multi-stakeholder approaches that engage civil society as well as States, companies and international organizations.
IDRC. CRDI- AZAMAT ABABAKIROV, AHMED ASHOUR, RAMATHI BANDARANAYAKE, RUWANKA DE SILVA, DOMINIQUE DIOUF, HERMAN WASSERMAN
"This detailed study provides an overview of the entities that are active in the fight against information disorder in the MENA region, and the methods and responses they use. It also discusses and analyzes legal and human rights issues and the context of freedom of opinion and expression in which they operate."
United Nations - SDG16 Data Initiative
The SDG16 Data Initiative is a consortium dedicated to the implementation and open tracking of progress towards the SDG 16 targets, using non-official data. It aims to evaluate global progress towards realizing the 2030 Agenda. It is intended to provide governments, UN officials, and civil society stakeholders with a resource to help understand progress on SDG16 targets and an evidence base for them to identify gaps and shortcomings in both implementing and monitoring SDG16.
Chapter 3 of the report is dedicated to Disinformation and how it is a disruption towards achieving the Sustainable Development Goals. It discusses "the main ways to classify the types of inaccurate information, and the terminology used to describe them. It then provides an overview of the key drivers for the increasing spread of such information." It also "delves in more detail into the main ways in which the circulation of inaccurate information creates headwinds for development progress."
Internews
While the report focuses on the question of what might Internews and other stakeholders - NGOs, civil society organizations, media, digital platforms, legislators, government, academia, and private sector - do better or differently to help address the issue of disinformation in the Philippines, the study's recommendations are wide-ranging and might apply to donors and practitioners in many other Asian countries. The research, for example, suggests that donors need to set up sustainable funding infrastructures that guarantee the independence from specific political agendas; It recommends improving dynamic interfaces between researchers, fact-checkers, and journalists, with the approach followed by Harvard's Shorenstein Center given as a model.
UNESCO/ICFJ
A disturbing trend of online violence - from doxxing to death threats - is often tied to larger disinformation campaigns aimed at undermining public trust in fact-based journalism.
Verité Research
This report provides crucial contextual information about the situation of media vulnerability to disinformation in Sri Lanka and highlights the challenges journalism support against disinformation might face in countries where the mainstream media is co-opted by the State or has internalized racist, xenophobic, or hateful attitudes.
Internews - YVONNE T. CHUA, NICOLE CURATO & JONATHAN CORPUS ONG
While the report focuses on the question of what might Internews and other stakeholders - NGOs, civil society organizations, media, digital platforms, legislators, government, academia, and private sector - do better or differently to help address the issue of disinformation in the Philippines, the study's recommendations are wide-ranging and might apply to donors and practitioners in many other Asian countries. The research, for example, suggests that donors need to set up sustainable funding infrastructures that guarantee independence from specific political agendas; It recommends improving dynamic interfaces between researchers, fact-checkers, and journalists, with the approach followed by Harvard's Shorenstein Center given as a model.
Fondation Hirondelle
This report from Fondation Hirondelle outlines their approach to disinformation, which “centres on the fundamental principles of journalism and on the lessons learned from over 25 years of applying these principles in highly fragile contexts, where access to reliable information for the majority is not a given, and where rumours, hate speech and propaganda undermine peace building and development.”
It features recommendations for governments and development aid donors; policymakers and institutions; media owners; companies and web and social media organisations.
Internews - RACHEAL JOLLEY
This Internews research study finds that a global COVID-19 vaccine rollout must be coupled with funding and strategies to support trusted local media worldwide. The report demonstrates an urgent need to support groups at the local level if misinformation and mistrust are to be tackled effectively.
National Endowment for Democracy’s International Forum for Democratic Studies - SAMANTHA BRADSHAW & LISA-MARIA NEUDERT
“Civil society organizations (CSOs) play a central role in addressing disinformation’s growing impact on democracy. Given the vast scope of the global disinformation challenge, the landscape for CSOs working in this space has evolved rapidly in recent years. [...] How has civil society grown in its understanding and response to the digital disinformation challenge and what should be done to further empower this work? [...] This research yielded several clear observations about the state of CSO responses to disinformation and, in turn, suggests several recommendations for paths forward.”
Arab Reporters for Investigative Journalism (ARIJ)
The policy paper is based on polls involving 229 Arab journalists and dialogue with 17 experts from the press, representatives of local and international institutions concerned with training and supporting journalists, as well as representatives of Facebook, Twitter and Google.
The paper comprises three chapters. First, it discusses what fake news is, distinguishing it from other variations of misinformation and refuting common assumptions surrounding it; second, it unpacks the state of fake news in the Arab world during the COVID-19 pandemic, specifically until August 2020; third, it names the most important methods used in the region to confront this news, discussing their effectiveness and shortcomings. Finally, the paper puts forward recommendations to prevent and combat the regional spread of misleading news.
Broadband Commission research report on ‘Freedom of Expression and Addressing Disinformation on the Internet’ September 2020
See especially the section “Typology of Disinformation Responses” and then goes into detail about each type of intervention on how are the responses evaluated.
The Engine Room - BARBARA PAES
This research project explores ways to build a more equitable technology and data for human rights ecosystem–especially in terms of funding.
"As the Covid-19 pandemic triggers global socio-economic instability, civil society organisations depend on built-in resilience and accumulated resources to remain sustainable, making this research feel all the more critical."
Ahead of a report detailing the research findings, some emerging insights were shared in this article.
UNESCO - CHERILYN IRETON & JULIE POSETTI
UNESCO's new handbook is an essential addition to teaching syllabi for all journalism educators, as well as practising journalists and editors who are interested in information, how we share it and how we use it.
Written by experts in the fight against disinformation, this handbook explores the very nature of journalism - with modules on why trust matters; thinking critically about how digital technology and social platforms are conduits of the information disorder; fighting back against disinformation and misinformation through media and information literacy; fact-checking 101; social media verification and combatting online abuse.
Council of Europe - CLAIRE WARDKE & HOSSEIN DERAKHSHAN
Contemporary social technology means that we are witnessing something new: information pollution at a global scale. How do we begin to address information pollution?
This report provides a new framework for policy-makers, legislators, researchers, technologists and practitioners working on the theoretical and practical challenges related to mis-, dis- and mal-information — the three elements of information disorder.
While the historical impact of rumours and fabricated content have been well documented, the complexity and scale of information pollution in our digitally-connected, increasingly polarised world presents an unprecedented challenge.
There is an immediate need to work collaboratively on workable solutions and this report provides a framework for the different stakeholders involved in research, policy discussions, and technical innovations connected to this phenomenon of information disorder.
GEORGIA
East-West Management Institute & the United Nations Association of Georgia
The overall approach to disinformation in Georgia has, to date, been mostly reactive and defensive; however there is a notable trend towards proactivity. Lack of trust and cooperation between the government and civil society is diminishing the effect of efforts carried out by these parties. Therefore, there is a clear need for a more coordinated approach between state and non-state actors. There is also a need for a more comprehensive study of public perceptions and permeability to disinformation and key factors affecting these perceptions.
WHAT IS MISSING?
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Support to journalism
Research, reports into the effectiveness of donor and foundation support to journalism programmes that address disinformation.
Covid-19 Analysis of BBC Media Action Work (2021)
Impact of the BBC MA work on the uptake of the preventive measures:
Ethiopia: Radio programme encouraged them to continue to adopt safe behaviours to reduce transmission (77%).
Nigeria: Listeners (61% MTN and 49% TYO) said they would do something differently and were taking up more preventative actions than non listeners.
Afghanistan: 78% of those who watched or listened to PSAs said they have started washing hands with soap after watching the PSAs. 66% said they would wear a mask.
Somalia: 62% said they would do something differently as a result of watching/listening to output.
For more data and impact analysis see the presentation.
Centre of International Media Assistance - NOAH ARJOMAND
This article is part of a research project that asks whether social media truly allows journalists to bypass the traditional gatekeepers of information to feature more diverse voices and viewpoints in their narratives.
It also summarises a roundtable discussion organised by CIMA where panellists will address key questions including:
How has the increased dependency on social media and growing power of platforms transformed news ecosystems in developing countries?
How has it changed the production, dissemination, and consumption of independent news?
What are the benefits and potential pitfalls of these transformations?
Gabo Foundation / Fundación Gabo
To investigate, understand, explain and deal with the challenges for journalism in the era of social media and digital platforms this publications compiles the reflections, analysis and proposals of experts and teachers on the roots and functioning of misinformation, as well as the paths that journalism can follow to contribute to better informed and more democratic societies.
Media Matters for Democracy - AMEL GHANI & SADAF KHAN
Media Matters for Democracy (MMFD) conducted this perception study to assess the extent and depth of information disorder and how it affects the newsrooms in Pakistan.
The research included a survey of 546 journalists along with in-depth interviews of 10 senior reporters and editors in national and international newsrooms based in Pakistan.
The survey, aimed at understanding the perception of their ability to identify and counter misinformation, found that almost 90% of respondents believe that misinformation has had an impact on public trust in the media.
It also concluded that nine out of ten respondents claimed that they have become more vigilant about fact-checking due to accusations about the media's role in spreading misinformation.
Editors interviewed for the study felt that accusations of “fake news” and attacks on journalists on social media had not only made them more vigilant but also fearful of putting out information.
In terms of their understanding, the survey found that 89% of respondents claimed there were discussions in their newsrooms about misinformation. While on the face of it this appears encouraging, the survey indicated that none of the 584 respondents were able to differentiate between misinformation, mal-information, and disinformation casting a shadow over their true understanding of integral concepts.
While 81 percent of reporters surveyed said that their organisations had written guidelines, none of the editors from mainstream Pakistan-based news organisations said they had written fact-checking guidelines. This is further aggravated by the fact that 35% of respondents said they had not received any kind of formal training on fact-checking.
Source: Execuive summary pages 3-4.
Recommendations for media development organisations
There is a significant need to develop training and modules that take into account the reduced resources that media houses and newsrooms are working with.
Initiatives that can help decrease the workload of newsrooms by simply fact checking and verifying digital material such as pictures and videos being shared on social media, can work adjacent to news organisations.
Digital verification techniques and tools are constantly changing, and so it is important to create updated material in regional languages that reflects this.
Source: Chapter 7: Recomendations page 25.
Digital Rights Foundation - Pakistan
This baseline research study used an online survey of 150 journalists and in-depth interviews with 10 journalists to evaluate the impact of disinformation and viral 'fake news' on the practice of journalism in Pakistan as well as the extent to which local newsrooms were carrying out formal fact-checking before publishing.
FURTHER READING
Sustainability & viabilityWHAT IS MISSING?
This resource page is a work in progress. Please get in touch to let us know what is missing using this form.
Media & information literacy and fact-checking
Research and reports about the effectiveness of donor and foundation-supported media literacy and fact-checking programmes to address disinformation.
Please note that this resource page focuses on the effectiveness of donor and foundation-supported programmes to support the sustainability and viability of journalism.
It does not attempt to summarise the wealth of material on the sustainability of journalism.
Reuters- NIC NEWMAN, RICHARD FLETCHER, CRAIG T. ROBERTSON, KIRSTEN EDDY, RASMUS KLEIS NIELSEN
"While a break-out group of primarily ipmarket news publishers across the world report record digital subscription numbers and growing revenues, more broadly, we find that interest in news and overall news consumption has declined considerably in many countries while trust has fallen back almost everywhere – though it mostly remains higher than before the Coronavirus crisis began. We’re also seeing news fatigue setting in – not just around COVID-19 but around politics and a range of other subjects – with the number of people actively avoiding news increasing markedly."
Reuters Institute and Oxford University - Dr Benjamin Toff, Dr Sumitra Badrinathan, Dr Camila Mont'Alverne, Dr Amy Ross Arguedas, Dr Richard Fletcher, and Prof. Rasmus Kleis Nielsen
The Royal Society
Nieman Labs - CHIKEZIE E. UZUEGBUNAM, DANI MADRID-MORALES, EMEKA UMEJEI, ETSE SIKANKU, GREGORY GONDWE, HERMAN WASSERMAN, KHULEKANI NDLOVU & MELISSA TULLY
Some college students surveyed showed substantial media literacy — but being able to recognize a fake story didn’t always deter them from sharing it. [...] Researchers know a fair deal about “fake news” in the global North, but much less about what is happening in the global South — particularly in Africa.
Center for Media Data and Society - ROBERT NEMETH & MARIUS DRAGOMIR
A survey among 30 fact-checking groups worldwide found that the most important impact-related challenges to their work are "reaching their audience, using social media effectively, gaining credibility, and achieving an impact".
DW Akademie
Overall, the results illustrate that digital transformation is taking hold on the African continent, especially in urban settings – and yet it is a two-tiered transformation. While roughly two thirds of 15-to-25-year-olds in countries like Ghana and Kenya access the Internet on a weekly basis, this only holds true for around one third of Burkina Faso's youth. Africa's youth is challenged by this new media and information environment. Many experience disinformation, cyberbullying or hate speech on a daily basis. In Uganda, for instance, sexual harassment online has reached alarming proportions. And in Burkina Faso, youth do not feel represented in the media, tend to hold their voice back and withdraw into the private sphere. These findings hold important implications for MIL activities as well as policy considerations when it comes to youth and media.
RAND Corporation - TODD C. HELMUS, JAMES V. MARRONE, MAREK N. POSARD & DANIELLE SCHLAND
In an effort to determine the impact of the disinformation campaign on voters, the RAND Corporation, in partnership with IREX, conducted the first study to use a randomized control trial to understand the effect media literacy messaging could have on social media users. With short, social media–sized media literacy content, RAND tested how using various interventions and revealing the source of the content changed audience reactions.
The report, Russian Propaganda Hits Its Mark: Experimentally Testing the Impact of Russian Propaganda and Counterinterventions, utilized media literacy messages developed as part of IREX’s Learn to Discern (L2D) approach and revealed the following three important findings about the way propaganda influences audiences and the role of media literacy in countering disinformation in the United States.
Kremlin propaganda evokes emotional responses.
Exposure to media literacy can shift the behaviours of hard-to-reach groups.
Labeling has a positive effect on reducing the probability of liking/sharing in partisan audiences.
It is encouraging that IREX’s approach to media literacy may offer users potential emotional awareness and emotional regulation tools to resist the urge to react to—and spread—Kremlin-sponsored disinformation. Further research is needed to understand more about specific types of media literacy messages, the audiences they best influence, and the effects of different levels of exposure.
EDUCATION
Association for Citizenship Teaching
WHAT IS MISSING?
This resource page is a work in progress. Please get in touch to let us know what is missing using this form.